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Bluebells: the Armada is here again

by Dr. Peter Llewellyn

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Each spring during the past decade or so, stories have appeared in newspapers, natural history magazines and sometimes even on television about the threat to the native bluebell (Hyacinthoides non-scripta) in Britain and Ireland from non-native invaders: the Spanish bluebell (Hyacinthoides hispanica) and the garden or hybrid bluebell (Hyacinthoides x massartiana). This article attempts to show the characteristics of these various bluebells, how we might distinguish our native bluebell from the others and whether there is any substantial evidence-based threat to its existence from these invaders.

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Native Bluebell

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Non-native Bluebell

Our native bluebell: name changes

In 2002 Plantlife surveyed opinions about Britain's favourite wild flower in an attempt to find an appropriate and different wild flower to represent each County. The native bluebell (H. non-scripta) was so popular in so many areas it had to be excluded from the list. Again in 2015, Plantlife surveyed thousands of its members to discover the favourite flower for the four nations of the United Kingdom. The bluebell was top of the poll in England. Bluebells have been a favourite for a long time and gardeners have admired their ability to form drifts of scented blue flowers in springtime, but trying to discover how long bluebells have been studied and cultivated is complicated by many name changes to the species over the years. World Flora Online21 describes 26 synonyms for the Latin name for bluebell which have been used over the years. Here are a just a few of them:

Botanical Synonym Comments
Hyacinthus anglicus This name was used in Gerard's Herball or Generall Historie of Plantes in 1597 by John Gerard and was applied to the twotaxaq we now call the native bluebell (Hyacinthoides non-scripta) and the Spanish bluebell (Hyacinthoides hispanica).
Hyacinthus non-scriptus (L.) Carl Linnaeus1 (1701 to 1778) coined this name in his 1753 book introducing the non-scriptus species name. This name comes from Greek mythology.
Scilla non-scripta Hoffmanns. & Link Used in Neue Schriften, Gesellschaft Naturforschender Freunde zu Berlin. iv. (1803) 19.
Agraphis nutans (Sm) Link From Handbuch zur Erkennung der Nutzbarsten und am Haufigsten Vorkommenden Gewächse. Berlin (1829) Agraphis means the same as non-scriptus (without words or writing) and nutans means nodding.
Endymion non-scriptus (L.) Garcke The genus name for bluebell was transferred to Endymion by Christian August Friedrich Garcke in 1849 in Flora von Nord- und Mittel-Deutschland. This was the name we all used when I started botanising seriously in the 1970s. Endymion in Greek mythology was the handsome son of Zeus.
Scilla festalis Salisb. Used in Flowers of the Field by Rev Charles Alexander Johns in 1853
Scilla nutans Sm. Used in Flora of the British Isles by A.R. Clapham, T.G. Tutin & D.M. Moore 1989
Hyacinthoides non-scripta (L.) Chouard ex. Rothm The current name for our native bluebell. First suggested by Pierre Chouard in 1934.

Native bluebells and the link with Greek mythology

Carl Linnaeus gave the first binomial name Hyacinthus non-scriptus to what we call now our native bluebell. This is because he recognised it as related to the Hyacinth which in turn takes its name from a Greek myth about a beautiful prince called Hyakinthos from a place called Amyklai near Sparta.

Hyakinthos was a follower of the God Appollon who loved Hyakinthos. One day Appollon and Hyakinthos were playing with a discus and Zephyrus the God of the West Wind, who also loved Hyakinthos blew the discus off course in a fit of jealousy. The discus hit Hyakinthos and killed him. At the spot where his blood fell on the earth a flower sprang up with markings on the petals. The marks seemed to spell out the word AIAI which translates as Alas from Ancient Greek. There are variations of this myth but they all involve blood being spilt and a flower growing as a result.

It is not certain what the flower was. Some say it must have been a type of Gladiolus, some say a Larkspur but not really anything like our familiar garden Hyacinth. Nevertheless the bluebell is related to the Hyacinth so Linnaeus called it a Hyacinth (Hyacinthus). But our bluebell doesn't have the letters AIAI inscribed on the tepalsa (non-scriptus). After many attempts at re-naming the genus we have arrived at Hyacinthoides non-scripta. The - oides, which is originally from Greek, can be incorporated into a Latin binomial for a plant. It means similar to, a bit like, looks like or resembles.

So a rough translation of our current scientific name for bluebell tells you its a bit like a Hyacinth but without any writing on the petals.

Field Observations in this article

It is fair to say that amongst most practising field botanists, it has long been recognised that Spanish bluebell (Hyacinthoides hispanica) has been over-recorded for the hybrid (Hyacinthoides hispanica x Hyacinthoides non-scripta = Hyacinthoides x massartiana). As long ago as 1988, one of our most distinguished UK botanists, Dr. T. Rich2 wrote: "The True Spanish species is not often seen" .

However, that is not always how the situation is presented even by well known and respected plant organisations such as the Royal Horticultural Society, The Wildlife Trusts, National Trust or Gardeners World for example. Advice on how to distinguish Spanish from native bluebells tends to be the main thrust of the identification advice. And as if to reinforce the idea that H. hispanica is common in UK and Ireland, the current BSBI Atlas (March 2024) shows it to be quite widely recorded.

So, is H. hispanica commonly found in the UK or not? At this point in the article we assume that it could be.

To avoid confusion in this article, the photos of H. hispanica in this article were taken in Andalucia in Spain and the photographs of hybrids and native Bluebells in UK. The aim of this article is to present original photographs of whole plant, leaves, flower stem and close-ups of the florets and habitat to try to reach a conclusion about the genuine morphologicalg differences between these species.

When the article refers to non-native bluebells, it means they are most probably hybrid bluebells (H. x massartiana) but could just possibly be Spanish (H. hispanica) . When it refers to native or Spanish bluebells, the article refers to H. non-scripta or H. hispanica specifically.

Note about botanical terminology: some botanical terms used in this article are explained in the glossary at the end. If you click on a supercripted letter just after a botanical term, it will take you to the glossary. If you then click the term in the glossary it will take you back to your place in the text. The line you were reading will usually be at the top of the page now.

The superscripted numbers refer to the References section at the bottom of this article. If the referenced article was accessible then there may be a clickable link but some are behind paywalls.

Note on how to use the photographs: If you have scripts enabled on your computer or mobile device then clicking on the thumbnail (180 x 180 px) photo will cause it to enlarge to 800 x 800px. It will not at first enlarge bigger than the screen on your device though. This limits the usefulness of this feature on some mobile devices and cell phones. On large screens you can enlarge more than one photograph at once and drag them alongside each other for comparison. Click the enlarged photo again to reduce it back to the thumbnail size.

Field Observations of the native bluebell in Britain and Ireland

Native Bluebell Observed features
H. non-scripta warburton wood

Native Bluebell

Warburton Wood, Cheshire 9th May 2010

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Our native bluebell (H. non-scripta) is very often found in the company of hundreds if not thousands of others. It is sometimes difficult therefore to get a photograph of a single plant. This one, in a field on the edge of a large bluebell wood, shows the dark blue, tubular flowers, the nodding habit and the one-sided inflorescence. The leaves here are fairly narrow but contrary to what you might read in other guides, leaf width alone cannot be relied upon as a distinguishing feature. Some non-native bluebells have leaves almost as narrow as the ones shown here. The leaf widths of the native bluebell measured in this study did not vary much (0.4cm to 0.6cm, rarely 1.0 to 1.5cm).

H. non-scripta alvanley

Native Bluebell

Alvanley verge, Cheshire 7th May 2020

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A close view of the floretsc making up the inflorescence shows the deep blue/purple, elongated, bell-shaped flowers (tubular) with significant reflexing (curling back) of the tepals. The florets are always fairly crowded together at the top of the scapeb. The nodding habit of the native bluebell means that most of the florets point towards the ground making it tricky to see the pollen colour which is usually white/cream and sometimes described as pale yellow.

H. non-scripta sandstone trail

Native Bluebell

Sandstone trail, Cheshire 5th May 2006

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In this plant the inflorescence is has fewer florets but they are still crowded at the top of the scape (flower stem). Just under each individual floret there are two narrow, pointed, purple bracts. Some of the florets here show reflexede (curled back) tepals but not as pronounced as in those photographed above. There will nearly always be some reflexing of the tepals in H. non-scripta. Again the florets point downwards so that the anthers and therefore the pollen colour, cannot be seen from above.

H. non-scripta deganwy

Native Bluebell

Deganwy hill, near Llandudno, North Wales 21st May 2018

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In this case, a cold British spring had allowed bluebells to go on flowering much later than usual. This one is on the edge of a large coastal patch of bluebells rather than in a wood. The bluebells will eventually be shaded out by Bracken (Pteridium aquilinum). This close-up has one floret upturned so you can see the white pollen from the dehiscedf (opened) anthers. The normal colour of the pollen is white in this species and does not vary. The colour of the flowers here is nearer purple or violet than dark blue but digital cameras sometimes have difficulty in accurately recording shades of blue and purple.

H. non-scripta leaves helsby

Native Bluebell

Small wood, Helsby, Cheshire 11th April 2021

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At the edge of a woodland area the bluebells are more sparsely distributed enabling the photographer to get a shot of the leaves with no overlap from neighbours. This shows the very narrow, almost parallel-sided leaves of the native H. non-scripta bluebell. Looking at the widest leaf and the narrowest in this particular bluebell wood, the range of leaf widths was measured to be 1.0 cm at the widest to 0.4 cm at the narrowest with most around 0.5/0.6 cm.

Field Observations of non-native bluebells

There is general agreement that the native bluebell (Hyacinthoides non-scripta) can be distinguished morphologically (appearance/shape) from non-native species such as the Spanish bluebell (H. hispanica), Spanish bluebell cultivars and Hybrid bluebells (H. x massartiana) and hybrid cultivars. There isn't one definitive character which will allow identification of our native bluebell but a combination (see Separating non-native bluebells from the native Hyacinthoides non-scripta below).

The identification problems arise when you examine a range of non-native bluebells growing in Britain and Ireland seeking to find consistent distinguishing features to aid identification. As stated above, all Spanish bluebell photographs shown here are images taken in southern Spain but you can see from the distribution map that H. hispanica is also found in Portugal.

Although H. non-scripta and H. hispanica both occur in Spain and Portugal, H. non-scripta is confined to the north and a relatively small region of central Spain. H. non-scripta is not recorded from the Andalucian countryside so this reduces the chances of hybrids occurring naturally. Hybrids can be occasionally found in the absence of both parents though. Naturally occurring hybrids arise in Spain where the ranges of the parents overlap.

Distribution of Hyacinthoides non-scripta and Hyacinthoides hispanica in the Iberian peninsula 4

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The non-native bluebells shown in the following table are from from gardens and various countryside locations in England and north Wales, mostly not far from human habitation. All the measurements and photos are from field work not literature sources.

Comparing leaves of non-native Bluebells

Non-native Bluebell in Britain and Ireland Observed features
H. x massartiana Orme

Non-native Bluebell

Country verge, Cheshire, 24th March 2024

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This is a clump of non-native Bluebells on a country roadside verge before flowering. The leaves here are typical of the sorts of width described in many guides: around 2.5 to 3.5 cm. But as can be seen from other photographs below, the leaves of non-natives actually vary from 0.4 cm to 3.5 cm, very rarely over 4cm wide.

H. x massartiana Orme

Non-native Bluebell

Cheshire garden 31st March 2021

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H. x massartiana Orme

Non-native Bluebell leaves

Cheshire, various sites, 24th March 2024

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This top photo is a garden bluebell. Garden bluebells are likely to be hybrid Bluebells. But even if they were true Spanish originally, hybridisation with local non-native and other hybrids would have taken place over the decades. As can be seen from the lower photograph, the range of leaf widths for hybrids is very large, 0.5 cm (left) to 1.8 cm (centre) to 3.5 cm (right) in this sample.

H. x massartiana Orme

Non-native Bluebell

Cheshire garden 31st March 2021

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Non-native bluebells are fertile and can backcross with each other. Some progeny can show more of the characters of one parent than the other. In this plant, the leaves are almost as narrow as the 0.4 to 1.0 cm range of a typical native bluebell. Using leaves alone as a clue, you might identify this plant as the native bluebell. When it flowers though, it is obviously a non-native bluebell.

Spanish Bluebell in Spain Observed features
Hyacinthoides hispanica el Burgo

Hyacinthoides hispanica Spanish Bluebell

Cliffs near El Burgo, Andalucia, Spain 24th April 2017

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This specimen of Spanish bluebell has quite narrow leaves, although not quite as narrow as H. non-scripta. Often Spanish bluebells will have some wider leaves as well. This one only had narrow leaves. It was found growing near a limestone rock in the hills, which is a typical habitat for this plant.

Hyacinthoides hispanica el Torcal

Hyacinthoides hispanica Spanish Bluebell

El Torcal plateau, Andalucia, Spain 26th March 2017

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Some leaves are quite wide and a few significantly narrower in this clump of H. hispanica but all the leaves are wider and more erect than a typical H. non-scripta growing in Britain or Ireland. Even the widest of these H. hispanica leaves is not as wide as those found in some garden bluebells.

Hyacinthoides hispanica el Torcal

Hyacinthoides hispanica Spanish Bluebell

Montejaque, Andalucia, 29th April 2021 Photo by Brenda Jones

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The leaves here are significantly longer and wider than any you would find on even the healthiest H. non-scripta. They sometimes have a V shaped profile. The photographs above of the Spanish bluebell growing wild in Spain show that the assumption that H. hispanica always has wide leaves, and that this is a distinguishing feature for identification, is incorrect. This may be because this character is assumed to be those of H. hispanica but are actually from H. x massartiana.



General characters of Inflorescence of non-native bluebells

Non-native Bluebell in Britain and Ireland Observed features
H. x massartiana Orme

Non-native Bluebell

Great Orme, North Wales 11th May 2017

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This clump of non-native bluebells has an erect scape and the campanulate,d individual florets are arranged all round the flower head. The leaves here are significantly wider than in our native bluebell (H. non-scripta).

H. x massartiana Abergele

Non-native Bluebell

Pensarn Beach, Abergele North Wales 24th April 2005

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This close-up photo of one non-native bluebell flower head again shows an erect scape and individual florets arranged all round the flower head. Each tepal has a distinct blue stripe down the middle, said by some to be typical of hybrid bluebells.

H. x massartiana Orme

Non-native Bluebell

Great Orme 11th April 2017

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This single non-native bluebell flower head again shows an erect scape and individual florets arranged all round the flower head. The pollen colour here is blue as is often stated in identification guides. Such guides will then suggest H. hispanica as an identification but hybrids cannot be ruled out.

H. x massartiana Orme

Non-native Bluebell

Cheshire garden 7th April 2021

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Identification guides will often suggest that saucer shaped flowers are associated with pure Spanish bluebell. In this non-native bluebell the flowers are mostly campanulate (bell-shaped) but one is opened very wide indeed. The outside of the petals show a distinct blue stripe, rarely found in Spanish bluebells growing in Spain. They have blue pollen. This is typically the sort of non-native which may be recorded as H. hispanica even though it was growing in the middle of a population of much more obvious hybrid bluebells.

H. x massartiana Garden

Non-native Bluebell

Cheshire lane 27th April 2020

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Non-native bluebells can backcross to yield a few offspring which are much closer to one parent than the other. This plant shows longer more tubular bells, some reflexing of the tepals but without a one-sided flowering habit. The outside of the tepals shows a distinct blue stripe, which is rarely found in the pure Spanish bluebell (H. hispanica) but is apparent sometimes in the native (H. non-scripta).






Spanish Bluebell in Spain Observed features
Hyacinthoides hispanica near Ronda

Hyacinthoides hispanica Spanish Bluebell

Rocks near Ronda, Andalucia 27th March 2017

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On a sunny day, this clump of Spanish bluebells was fully open with the flowers almost flat. The medium width leaves show the variability of this character. Florets are well spaced, campanulate (bell-shaped) at first with slightly reflexed tepals and with dehisced anthers (burst open) revealing blue pollen. The tepals in the fully open flower are well separated.

Hyacinthoides hispanica el Burgo

Hyacinthoides hispanica Spanish Bluebell

Montejaque, Andalucia, Spain 29th April 2021 Photo by Brenda Jones

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This Spanish bluebell has typically fewer florets and they are more spread out than in the typical hybrid (H. x massartiana). Fewer florets might be due to poor soil of course. Here, the pedicels (individual flower or floret stalks) are longer than in the native and many of the non-native bluebells found in Britain and Ireland. The florets are at right angles to the scape, some even pointing upwards. There is only the very faintest blue stripe on the tepals. Compare this with illustrations or photographs in guides attempting to separate the native from the Spanish bluebell. Those guides often show densely packed flower heads with the campanulate florets pointing or drooping downwards for H. hispanica.

Hyacinthoides hispanica BJ

Hyacinthoides hispanica Spanish Bluebell

Montejaque, Andalucia, Spain 16th April 2018 Photo by Brenda Jones

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Most of the inflorescence of one plant is shown here demonstrating how the florets of H. hispanica can often be quite sparse, on short pedicels (individual flower or floret stalk) and spread all round the plant and at right angles to the flower stem or even pointing slightly upwards.

Hyacinthoides hispanica el Burgo

Hyacinthoides hispanica Spanish Bluebell

Near Ronda, Andalucia, Spain 27th April 2017

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A large clump of Spanish bluebells growing from a crack in rock. Even in late March or April the Spanish sun can be very hot alllowing the floret to open almost flat. The flowers show variable reflexing (curling back) of the well separated tepals and all anthers have blue pollen. The anthers on several florets shown here are undehisced (pollen still inside the anther) and so appear a slightly deeper blue colour and arrow shaped. Again the scape has relatively few florets compared with a typical non-native garden bluebell found in the UK.

Single floret close-ups

Non-native Bluebells in Britain Observed features
H. x massartiana garden

Non-native Bluebell

Cheshire garden 7th April 2021

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This close-up of a single floret of a blue non-native bluebell shows the dehisced (opened) anthersm with pollen exposed. The pollen colour here is nearer pale green than blue. The tepals are not significantly reflexed (bent back).

H. x massartiana garden

Non-native Bluebell

Cheshire garden 8th April 2021

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This close-up shows the dehisced (opened) anthers with pollen exposed. The pollen colour here is more dirty yellow than anything. The tepals are reflexed and the filamentsn (stalks supporting anthers) are blue and there is a distinct stripe on the tepals.

H. x massartiana garden

Non-native Bluebell

Cheshire garden 11th April 2021

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This close-up from a similar plant shows the dehisced (opened) anthers with blue pollen exposed. The pollen is a dull blue, there is a discernible stripe on the tepals. The filament is blue. No reflexing of tepals.

H. x massartiana garden

Non-native Bluebell

Cheshire garden 11th April 2021

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Often there appears to be a good number of the form with pink tepals among the non-natives. This is largely because gardens originally planted with bluebells bought from the horticultural trade will have consisted of pure pink, white and blue flowered plants which then cross-pollinate giving a range of colours. The pollen here is an off-white/cream colour which similar to the native H. non-scripta but this is definitely not the native species.

H. x massartiana garden

Non-native Bluebell

Cheshire garden 11th April 2021

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There is an even higher frequency of white forms among the non-natives for the same reasons as above. The pollen here is also off-white/cream colour, which similar to the native H. non-scripta but again this is not the native species.



Spanish Bluebell in Spain

Observed features
Hyacinthoides hispanica el Torcal

Hyacinthoides hispanica Spanish Bluebell

El Torcal plateau (4,383 feet), Spain 28th March 2008

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A first glance seems to suggest that the pollen is white instead of the expected blue in this plant but the anthers here have lost all their pollen. This is a possible source of confusion. The original pollen may be deep blue in colour but if it has nearly all dispersed through the action of insects, wind or just gravity, the remnant anther will look white. Note the very pale bracts and the slight reflexing of the tepals, which do not have the blue stripe that is found in many non-native bluebells in Britain.

Hyacinthoides hispanica

Hyacinthoides hispanica Spanish Bluebell

Near el Burgo, Andalucia, Spain 24th March 2017

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H. hispanica in Spain starts in bud, develops as a campanulate (bell-shaped) partially open flower and if the sun is hot enough, will open flat often (but not always) with some significantly reflexed, well-separated tepals. Again, there is little or no stripe on the tepals. Guides will often state that there is no reflexing of tepals in Spanish Bluebells which is simply incorrect.

Hyacinthoides hispanica Montejaque Brenda Jones

Hyacinthoides hispanica Spanish Bluebell

Montejaque, Andalucia, Spain 29th April 2021 Photo by Brenda Jones

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Floret almost open flat with very slightly reflexed tepals. The blue pollen is exposed in the dehisced (burst or opened) anthers but there is one solid blue, intact anther showing too. Pollen is often released when the flower just begins to open. There is no darker coloured stripe on the tepals.



Hyacinthoides hispanica Montejaque Brenda Jones

Hyacinthoides hispanica Spanish Bluebell

Montejaque, Andalucia, Spain 29th April 2021 Photo by Brenda Jones

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Floret almost open flat with some slightly reflexed tepals. There is a flea beetle is sitting on the stigmap on top of the style.o which appears to have pollen at the tip of it. The anthers are all dehisced (opened) and much of the blue pollen has dispersed but enough remains to see the colour. There is no darker coloured stripe on the tepals.

Bluebell habitats

Non-native Bluebell habitat in Britain Observed features
Garden Bluebells habitat

Non-native Bluebell

Cheshire Garden 2002

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Garden bluebells, which are very likely to be H. x massartiana, will tolerate some shade like native H. non-scripta. They will also tolerate open habitats and compete effectively in the wild. They are often found near habitation and from there it is theoretically possible for them to impact woodland H. non-scripta habitats by hybridisation.

Non native pink

Non-native Bluebell

Cheshire Roadside

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Non-native bluebells can very often be found close to habitation. These plants were close to the road opposite houses and have very likely either escaped from gardens or been deliberately planted by local people. The frequency of plants with white or pink flowers is very low in native (H. non-scripta) populations but equal numbers of all three colours can quite often be found in clumps of non-native plants.

Non native pink

Non-native white Bluebells

Cheshire Woodland

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White non-native bluebells are frequently found where garden escapes abound. This is a clump of mostly white bluebells.

Non native pink

Non-native Bluebell

Cheshire Roadside

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Non-native bluebells are found throughout this woodland on the side of a hill. There appear to be very few if any native (H. non-scripta) plants here and there is little evidence of it being frequent in the past. None of the patches of non-native bluebells in this woodland is much more than 400 metres from human habitation.

Spanish Bluebell habitat in Spain Observed features
Hyacinthoides hispanica Montejaque habitat

Hyacinthoides hispanica habitat

Montejaque, Andalucia, Spain 29th April 2021 Photo by Brenda Jones

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In southern Spain, H. hispanica typically grows in limestone hills and mountains. The plants are very often found growing on rocks or out of cracks in the rock. It will tolerate some shade but is just as often found in the open in full sun. It does not form drifts like H. non-scripta and is not particularly common.

Hyacinthoides hispanica habitat

Hyacinthoides hispanica habitat

Montejaque, Andalucia, Spain 29th April 2021 Photo by Brenda Jones

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Although often found growing on rocks and even sheer cliff faces, Spanish bluebells near the ground can face stiff competition. This is typical of the vegetation in which Spanish bluebells may be found.

Hyacinthoides hispanica Near Ronda habitat

Hyacinthoides hispanica habitat

near Ronda, Andalucia, Spain 2017

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When searching for H. hispanica in Spain you have to remember that they might grow singly or in clumps but not in huge numbers as H. non-scripta do in Britain and Ireland. They are not at all common either so can easily be missed in their typical rocky habitat when surrounded by more eye-catching species with bright colours or attractive foliage. There appears to be just one small clump in this photo.

Hyacinthoides hispanica Near Ronda habitat

Hyacinthoides hispanica habitat

El Torcal, Spain 2017

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H. hispanica is not common in Spain and can be found in habitats quite different from anything we see in Great Britain or Ireland. This is open limestone country and quite high up at over 4,000 feet. The bluebells growing on a ledge on this cliff face (edge of the photo at 4 o'clock) could be classified as alpines!


Cultivated Bluebells

An article24 written by Dr John David who is Head of the Royal Horticultural Society’s Horticultural Taxonomy Team is the basis of the next few paragraphs about the history of Bluebell acquisition and cultivation.

Discussions about the Spanish bluebell might lead someone to believe it is a recent introduction, but it seems likely that it was in cultivation in 1768 when it was described by the chief gardener at Chelsea Physic Garden, Phillip Miller who selected Scilla hispanica as the lectotypek of the species.

But even before then, it was mentioned by the herbalist John Parkinson in 1629 in his now famous and much-sought-after book: Paradisi in Sole Paradisus Terrestris5. In addition, an illustration in Basilius Besler’s book6 Hortus Eystettensis in 1613 shows an upright plant with flowers all round the stem just like the Spanish bluebell. The Spanish bluebell seems to have been in cultivation for about 400 years and by 1872 it was recognised by botanist John Gilbert Baker23 when he described fifty different forms of “Wood Hyacinth”. Wood Hyacinth was the general name he gave to bluebells and Baker showed them to be in a range of forms between our native (H. non-scripta) and the Spanish bluebell (H. hispanica).

In spite of the published name in many modern botanical sources, older names for Spanish bluebell sometimes appear on labels of plants in some nurseries and garden centres. One such name still occasionally found is Scilla campanulata which is an illegalr synonym of Scilla hispanica.

In 1934 Pierre Chouard suggested there could be a hybrid between H. non-scripta and H. hispanica suggesting that most Wood Hyacinths were in fact hybrids but it wasn't until 1996 that the hybrid between H. non-scripta and H. hispanica was given a name (H. x massartiana) by Daniel Geerinck3.

Bluebells have been available to gardeners for a few centuries now and horticulturalists have been cultivating combinations of the most attractive of these using their usual breeding methods to make them of interest to gardeners.

Queen of the Pinks White City Excelsior
Farmer Gracy Pink

Hyacinthoides hispanica 'Queen of the Pinks'

Farmer Gracy catalogue 2021

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Farmer Gracy Blue

Hyacinthoides hispanica 'White City'

Farmer Gracy catalogue 2021

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Farmer Gracy white

Hyacinthoides hispanica 'Excelsior'

Farmer Gracy catalogue 2021

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This is sold as a cultivated Spanish bluebell (Hyacinthoides hispanica) and it has been selectively cultivated its striking pink colour and large numbers of closely spaced flowers. This hugely attractive cultivar is probably the basis of many pink-flowered garden bluebells. DNA analysis would perhaps reveal more of the ancestry of such cultivars. Hybrids, native bluebells and pure Spanish bluebells are all fertile so it is entirely possible that all have been used to produce the desired effect. This cultivated bluebell has the typical white colour you can usually find among many garden bluebells. This cultivar shows very wide leaves which are more typical of hybrid bluebells (H. x massartiana). These excellent examples of Hyacinthoides sp. cultivars are taken from a 2021 catalogue and there are many others available from nurseries worldwide although the names used may vary.

It is entirely possible that the plants now seen in many gardens known variously as garden bluebell, hybrid bluebell or Spanish bluebell are be the result of decades of cultivation and that these names cannot be, with certainty, ascribed to the non-native bluebells we now recognise growing in gardens and in the countryside around Britain and Ireland.

Because garden bluebells are fertile and can backcross with each other there will be quite a few generations of garden bluebells with a continuum of characters associated with the original parents. The parents may be the Spanish bluebell (H. hispanica) and the native bluebell (H. non-scripta) or cultivars of either parent. In gardens with long established non-native bluebells it is easy to find bluebells with a wide range of leaf-width, habit, colour and flower characteristics, giving rough clues to the original parentage.

Even this is not clear though, for there are reports that some of the non-native bluebells which have been subjected to cytological analysis are actually triploid13,24. This means that instead of having the two sets of chromosomes in the cells (diploid), the chromosomes are present as three sets (triploid).

Such triploid bluebells could reproduce vegetatively but would very likely be sterile or have very low pollen fertility. It is known from other studies that triploid plant species can show extra vigour and have larger flowers. The energy used by the plant in forming seeds is not required in triploid species. The best everyday example is the banana. The fruit we buy in the supermarket comes from a triploid banana plant which is sterile. That's why there are no seeds in the banana fruit and it is propagated vegetatively by dividing the root.  Such triploid characteristics of a bluebell would be of great benefit to a nurseryman trying to create large, colourful plants to boost sales to customers.

The motivation for producing "bigger and better" bluebells is there and no doubt has been for some time.

Summary of Hyacinthoides characters from field studies

Character Native (H. non scripta) Hybrid (H. x massartiana) Spanish (H. hispanica)
Leaf width Always narrow 0.4 cm to 1.0 cm (1.5)cm. Very wide but sometimes narrow and near the range of native bluebells. Quite wide but some narrow. Leaves much longer than H. non-scripta.
Tepal reflexed Yes. Sometimes, incredibly variable. Sometimes.
Tepal Stripe Sometimes. Often. Rarely.
Flower shape Tubular, campanulate. Mostly campanulate, can be saucer shaped. Starts campanulate, can open flat. When fully open, tepals well separated.
Floral colour Blue/purple/violet, very occasionally white, rarely pink. All shades of blue/purple, good proportions of pink and white. Blue.
Flower angle Points down. Often points down, or at right angles, occasionally even upwards. At right angles or upwards. Points down in bud and early flower.
Pollen Colour Always white. White, cream, yellowish, grey, pale green, blue. Always blue.
Scape Nearly always nodding. Mostly erect, occasionally nodding. Always erect.
Floral arrangement Always one-sided but occasional florets point in different directions. Mostly all round the scape but hybrids with mostly native genes can be one-sided. Often has a dense flower head. All round the scape but few florets round the flower-head.
Fragrance Sweetly scented. Strong after rain. Faintly scented but variable. Very faintly scented.
Separating non-native bluebells from the native Hyacinthoides non-scripta

It seems to be generally recognised that we can usually separate our native bluebells from non-native by combinations of morphological characters. These are the main characters which most consistently help to identify a native bluebell:

Plants, however, don’t always show the consistency of character we would wish. Examining many plants in a population of thousands reveals some with wider leaves than we would expect and a few with erect flower heads.  Generally though, most native bluebells will have the characteristics listed above.
Some guides will refer to other characters such as pollen colour but as should be clear from the photos, the white/cream pollen which all native bluebells show can also be found in non-native bluebells.

One character which has been quoted in some guides is anther attachment.  This refers to how the filament (stalk) of the anther is attached to the tepal. The relatively small difference between the measurements involved and the variability across all taxa suggest that this is not a useful character for separating the native bluebell from the Spanish bluebell or the hybrid. The errors of measurement for this character are simply too large.

Separating pure Hyacinthoides hispanica from native Hyacinthoides non-scripta

Knowing that there was a debate and some confusion even among experienced botanists about the reports and recording of “Spanish bluebells” in Britain and Ireland, as stated above this article only refers to photographs of plants taken in Spain. Comparing those with the native H. non-scripta the characters of H. hispanica appear to be fairly consistent:

The pollen colour is always blue but hybrids with a dominance of Spanish genes show blue pollen too. The leaves are always wider than those of H. non-scripta but can be surprisingly narrow.

Separating Hybrid bluebells (Hyacinthoides x massartiana) from possible Spanish Bluebells (Hyacinthoides hispanica).

It seems we can’t really do this reliably.

The hybrid is fertile and backcrossing results in many progeny with intermediate characters but a few are very close morphologically to either parent. Occasionally you can find a plant in a swarm of non-native bluebells which looks very like our native Hyacinthoides non-scripta but hybrids with a strong Spanish (Hyacinthoides hispanica) "look" seem to be quite common. Imagine decades of backcrossing which has led to a few bluebells with say 90% Spanish genes. It could be very tricky to distinguish these from pure Spanish bluebells but even harder if your only reference point is photographs or diagrams of Spanish bluebells originating in the UK. One persistent source of confusion is that Spanish bluebells on sale from bulb specialists appear much more like the plants we see in hybrid bluebells than in pure Spanish plants from Spain. It could well be that all so-called Spanish Bluebells on sale to the public are actually all hybrid cultivars but that could be the subject of another study.

Are there pure Spanish Bluebells growing in the wild and in gardens in Britain and Ireland or not?

It is always possible but we struggle to separate them from other non-native bluebells with certainty by morphological features alone, even after years of field work experience. What was needed at this stage was a definitive DNAj study and in 2023 Dr Markus Ruhsam7 et al. published a paper doing providing that.

Posing the question: "Is hybridisation with non-native congeneric species a threat to UK native Hyacinthoides non-scripta?". The scientists collected 501 bluebell samples from 56 populations in the United Kingdom and the Iberian Peninsula. Genetic analysis of the samples demonstrated that the non-native bluebells in the United Kingdom are not Hyacinthoides hispanica, the Spanish bluebell, but the hybrid between H. hispanica and H. non-scripta (= Hyacinthoides x massartiana). Interestingly, the DNA analysis also showed that Portugal rather than Spain was the country of origin of the first Spanish bluebell introductions to the UK.

And here is the crucial part helping to answer the question about the danger to our beloved native bluebell: only 2% of the samples of the native bluebell (H. non-scripta) showed any evidence of introgressioni by non-native genes. Hybridisationh may well be frequent where non-native bluebells have been introduced to some populations of native bluebells but in the natural H. non-scripta populations there is no large scale evidence of introgression. The results, Dr Ruhsam says, "do not support concerns of an 'extinction by hybridisation' scenario."

There are other studies showing how resilient our native bluebell is. It has been assumed that both the pure Spanish Bluebell and the hybrid could easily cross with populations of our native bluebells and begin to contaminate the Hyacinthoides gene pool with non-native genes. Studies8 of native and non-native Bluebells showed that pollen fertility was significantly lower in British non-natives (79%) compared with H. non-scripta (94%) and H. hispanica (84%) which favours our native bluebell. If we now consider the evidence from the 2023 study, where no pure Spanish bluebells were identified in the non-native bluebell population, the comparison is really between the pollen of the native bluebell (H. non-scripta) and the hybrid bluebell (Hyacinthoides x massartiana) which has a significantly lower pollen fertility.

Investigating seed production, Dr D. Kohn9 et al. found that the assumption of full interfertility between native and non-native bluebells was not supported. In other words they don't cross with each other as easily as previously thought. Native bluebells were more likely to produce seeds than non-natives. The results show that hybridisation in natural populations and introgression between natives and non-natives is possible. However, lower reproductive success of non-natives coupled with the massive numerical advantage (100:1)22of native bluebells over non-natives represents a substantial constraint against the postulated ‘extinction-by-hybridisation’ threat to H.non-scripta in the UK.

But could asexual reproduction be a threat too?

Anyone who has tried to get rid of garden bluebells knows they appear to spread effectively both by seed and by the creation of more bulbs. If there was evidence of incursion into our large native bluebell populations by non-native bluebell asexual reproduction, then it should be obvious: the bulbs from non-native bluebells produce plants which don't look like our native bluebell (to a botanist anyway) even if we can't easily determine their exact identity. If a few non-native bluebells established themselves in the proximity of a major native bluebell population, any transfer of non-native genetic material by pollinators14 through sexual reproduction would show in the DNA studies. But only 2% of natural native bluebell populations showed signs of introgression of non-native genes7. However, there is one powerful vector for asexual propagation of non-native bluebells into countryside populations which needs to be considered seriously: human beings. People do like to plant different species on countryside verges and it isn't beyond possibility that they could take a hybrid bluebell and plant it in a native population perhaps believing it to be the same species as the native bluebell.

In an article for the Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh News25, Professor Peter Hollingsworth said: "Even in residential areas bordering natural bluebell populations, hybrids rarely spread out of the contact zone. Far from worrying about ‘extinction-by-hybridization’ of H. non-scripta in the UK, we should be comforted by the fact that, left to their own devices, our native bluebells have massive advantages over non-natives.”

The hybrid progeny from coupling of Spainhs bluebells with native bluebells have settled here quite well particularly in our gardens and urban areas. As they have escaped from our parks and gardens into the countryside, the public has become more and more aware of them and the mooted threat to our precious bluebell woods has been publicised in newspapers and other mainstream media.

We should never forget that for our mainstream media, shocking news is what sells. "No danger to our bluebells from Spanish or hybrid bluebells" is unlikely to make the 9 o'clock news.

These latest studies have clarified everything now haven't they?

Probably not very quickly. Have a look at the current content (2024) of some plant and natural history organisations concerning the identification of the native and the Spanish bluebell12,15, 16, 17,18,19,20. Their understanding of the situation has been the accepted position for decades except perhaps amongst some field botanists. Not everyone reads scientific research papers which are notorious for using correct, but to the layperson, unfathomable technical terms. Some will possibly question the latest research conclusions and seek further corroboration. That's human nature.

If you've been spreading the word about the danger to our native bluebell from the Spanish Bluebell for years, it isn't easy to change your approach. When you've published papers, dissertations, theses or articles in which correct identification of Spanish Bluebells in the UK has been assumed to be possible, it will be hard to change direction and say "there are probably no Spanish bluebells in the wild". It will be just as tricky to say hybrids pose no threat either, even when the outcomes of properly conducted scientific investigations support such conclusions.

However, a few recently written articles such as "The survival battle of Britain's native bluebells"22,25 appear to have recognised the latest research and have acknowledged that the Spanish bluebell is very rare or absent in the UK and that the threat to our wild bluebell populations has been over-estimated.

Is there much evidence that our native bluebell populations have been "invaded" in the past on any scale? 

Not really. There have been uncorroborated reports on some social media outlets of encroachment by hybrids in some woodland areas and even SSSIs but it is far from clear that they had significant Hyacinthoides non-scripta populations before that. To be able to say that such invasions by hybridisation have definitely happened, we would need good evidence of an established, significant, native population of pure Hyacinthoides non-scripta changing to a mixed population of native and non-native bluebells over a known length of time. Of course an invasion could happen by people deliberately planting non-native bluebells in native bluebell population but we can't blame that on the Spanish bluebell.

Should you get rid of your garden bluebells because of the possible threat they pose?

No you might struggle to do it anyway according to most experienced gardeners. They will often suggest the best way is to move to a new house rather than do battle with well-established non-native bluebells in your garden. Bluebells have contractile roots meaning they pull themselves deeper into the soil each year and they produce smaller bulbs each of which can become a new plant. Because the hybrid is fertile there will be seeds in the soil nearby as well. Should you choose to try to poison your bluebells you will find them quite resistant even to powerful herbicides.

Conclusion

The threat to our native bluebell appears not to be anywhere as serious as we all once feared. We have no need to send for a modern-day botanically orientated Sir Walter Raleigh, as the threat from the Spanish Armada appears to have foundered on the unforgiving rocks of modern DNA analysis.

References

1 LINNAEUS Carl 1753 Species plantarum: exhibentes plantas rite cognitas ad genera relatas, cum diferentiis specificis, nominibus trivialibus, synonymis selectis, locis natalibus, secundum systema sexuale digestas. Tomus 1

2. RICH T.C.G., RICH M.D.B., PERRING F.H. Plant Crib 1988 pp113, RICH T.C.G., JERMY A.C. Plant Crib 1998 Hyacinthoides pp 374

3. GEERINCK, D. “Une Épithète Pour L'hybride Hyacinthoides Hispanica (Mill.) Rothm. × H. Non-Scripta (L.) Chouard Ex Rothm.: H. × Massartiana Geerinck (Liliaceae).” Belgian Journal of Botany, vol. 129, no. 1, 1996, pp. 83–85. .

4. Spanish Plants information System (Anthos)

5. PARKINSON John Paradisi in sole paradisus terrestris. or A garden of all sorts of pleasant flowers which our English ayre will permitt to be noursed vp with a kitchen garden of all manner of herbes, rootes, & fruites, for meate or sause vsed with vs, and an orchard of all sorte of fruitbearing trees and shrubbes fit for our land together with the right orderinge planting & preseruing of them and their vses & vertues collected by Iohn Parkinson apothecary of London 1629. (Cost if you wish to buy it:Approx £6,600)

6. BESLER, Basilius (1561-1629). Hortus Eystettensis. [Nuremberg]: 1613 A beautifully illustrated rare book which you are unlikely to see unless you bid for it at a Christies auction (approx £1,200,00)

7.RUHSAM M.,KOHN D., MARQUARDT J., LEITCH A. R., SCHNEIDER H, VOGEL J., BARRETT S. C. H., HULME P. E., SQUIRRELL J., HOLLINGSWORTH P. M. (2023) Is hybridisation with non-native congeneric species a threat to UK native bluebell Hyacinthoides non-scripta? Plants, People, Planet 5(6), 963–975.Is hybridisation with non-native congeneric species a threat to UK native bluebell

8.RUHSAM M, KOHN D., SQURRELL J., SCHNEIDER H., VOGEL J., RUMSEY F.J., HOLLINGSWORTH P.M. (2020): Morphology and pollen fertility of native and non-native bluebells in Great Britain, Plant Ecology & Diversity, DOI: 10.1080/17550874.2020.1765037 Morphology and Pollen Fertility of native and non-native Bluebells

9.KOHN, D. D., RUHSAM, M., HULME, P. E., BARRETT, S. C. H. & HOLLINGSWORTH, P. M.: Paternity analysis reveals constraints on hybridization potential between native and introduced bluebells (Hyacinthoides) Conservation Genetics, vol. 20, issue 3, pp. 571-584 Paternity analysis reveals constraints on hybridization potential

10.KOHN D.D., HOLLINGSWORTH P.M., HULME, P. E., Butler A.,: Are native bluebells (Hyacinthoides non-scripta) at risk from alien congenerics? Evidence from distributions and co-occurrence. Scotland Biological Conservation 142(1) 61-74 Are native bluebells at risk from alien congenerics?

11.Briggs. H. BBC News British bluebells 'have advantage over Spanish bluebells'

12.PILGRIM E., HUTCHINSON N., Bluebells for Britain Survey Plantlife Bluebells for Britain 2003 survey Report

13.WILSON J Y Cytogenetics of Triploid Bluebells Endymion nonscriptus (L.) Garcke and E. hispanicus (Mill.) Chouard

14.CORBET, S.A.; TILEY, C.F.: Insect visitors to flowers of bluebell (Hyacinthoides non-scripta): EurekaMag Entomologist's Monthly Magazine 135(1620-1623): 133-141 1999 (Paywall)

15.COPPERTHWAITE G.Topographical and Plant Density Effects on the Rates of Hybridisation of Bluebells NS6344 Dissertation 2019

16. BSBI Atlas Hyacinthoides hispanica

17. Royal Horticultural Society

18. Wildlife Trusts

19. National Trust

20. Gardeners World

21. World Flora Online Hyacinthoides non-scripta synonyms

22. MILNE R. Botany in Scotland Plant of the Week: Plant of the Week – 10th May 2021 -Bluebell (Hyacinthoides non-scripta) The survival battle of Britain's native bluebells

23. BAKER J.G. A Study of Wood Hyacinths Gardeners Chronicle 187: 1038-1039

24. DAVID J. A bluebell inquisition: Plant Review Royal Horticultural Society

24. GRUNDMANN M., RUMSEY F.J.,, ANSELL S.W., RUSSELL S.J., DARWIN S.C., VOGEL J.C., SPENCER M., SQUIRRELL J., HOLLINGSWORTH P.M., ORTIZ S., SCHNEIDER H. Phylogeny and Taxonomy of the Bluebell Genus Hyacinthoides, Asparagaceae [Hyacinthaceae] Taxon 59(1) February 2010 pp 68-82

25. Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh News, Jun2023 Sex in the country is better for British Bluebells


Glossary

(a) Tepals

Some flowers have coloured sepals and petals. If the colours and shape of the petals and sepals are so similar that we can't tell them apart, they are known as tepals. Bluebells have identical petals and sepals known as tepals.

(b) Scape

In some plants, the flower stalk rises from the bulb and has no leaves sticking out from it. Such a flower stalk is called a scape. Another example of a plant with a scape is a tulip.

(c) Floret

If the flower comprises many smaller flowers clustered closely together, then one of the individual flowers can be referred to as a floret. Members of the Daisy family (Asteraceae) often have tiny individual flowers closely packed together know as florets. An individual bluebell flower is often found in a closely crowded bunch at the top of the flower stem and can be called floret to distinguish it from the whole flower head.

(d) Campanulate

The Bellflower family (Campanulaceae) have individual flowers shaped very like bells. Bell-shaped-flowers are said to be campanulate. Our native bluebell (Hyacinthoides non-scripta) is always campanulate at all stages but the Hybrid Bluebell (Hyacinthoides x massartiana) and the Spanish Bluebell (Hyacinthoides hispanica) start campanulate but later can open out into separated tepals.

(e) Reflexed

Reflexed in botany means bent or curled backwards. In bluebells the very ends of the tepals curl backwards and are said to be reflexed. The native bluebell (Hyacinthoides non-scripta) nearly always has reflexed tepals.

(f) Dehiscence

The male part of a plant's reproductive system is called the stamen. The stamen comprises a stalk or filament and a bag containing pollen at the top called the anther. When the pollen is ready to be distributed and used in reproduction, the anther splits open and pollen grains spill out. The action of the splitting of the anther and releasing the pollen grains is called dehiscence. When the anther has burst open releasing the pollen, it is said to have dehisced.

(g) Morphological

Morphology in botany is the study of the development, form, and structure of plants. We use our knowledge of the form and structure of plants to tell them apart and to identify them. If we identify a plant from its appearance alone we have done so morphologically.

(h) Hybridisation

Hybridisation is a sexual process where plants of different species are bred to produce offspring. In plants the offspring are seeds or spores. In the context of this article, the pollen of, for instance, the native bluebell (Hyacinthoides non-scripta) is received by the stigma (female part of plant's reproductive system) of a Spanish Bluebell (Hyacinthoides hispanica) to create a hybrid cross between the two species. If the hybrid is fertile and many plant hybrids are not, then the hybrids can cross with each other creating further plants which are not necessarily like either parent.

(i) Introgression

Introgression is the gradual movement of genes from one species into the gene pool of another, when there is some opportunity for hybridisation between them. In this article, the investigation focussed on whether genetic material (genes containing DNA) had been transferred into populations of native bluebells (Hyacinthoides non-scripta) from other non-native bluebell species.

(j) DNA

DNA is short for Deoxyribonucleic acid. It is the molecule that carries genetic information for the development and functioning of a living organism like a plant.

(k) Lectotype

When a plant is first discovered because it is new to science, it is usually given an appropriate scientific name and a specimen of that plant is kept in a museum or herbarium. A single specimen representing the correctly named species is called the holotype. If something were to happen to the holotype plant specimen (destroyed by fire, rotted away, disappeared) a future plant scientist could submit a replacement which would be a lectotype meaning the "chosen" type specimen.

(l) Pedicel

If an individual flower or floret has a stalk attaching it to the main flower stem or scape, that stalk is known as a pedicel.

(m) Anther

The male part of plant has a bag containing pollen which, when ripe, bursts out of the bag (dehiscence) releasing the pollen. The bag is called an anther. The pollen can then be gathered by insects like bees or blown away in the wind eventually finding its way to the female part of another plant.

(n) Filament

The anther or bag containing pollen, is supported by a stalk inside individual flower or floret. The stalk supporting the anther is called a filament.

(o) Style

The female part of a plant's reproductive system usually comprises a style and stigma. The style is the stalk which supports the stigma upon which pollen is deposited by visiting pollinators such insects or birds. Pollen can also arrive on the stigma by being blown by the wind. The stigma is sticky so the pollen doesn't fall off.

(p) Stigma

The stigma is a sticky platform on top of the style. Pollinators brush past it hoping to take some nectar from the bottom of the flower or floret. As the pollinator brushes past the stigma, it leaves some pollen grains behind. If the pollen is the correct type and the stigma is ready to receive pollen, the pollen will grow a tube into the ovary and fertilise the ovules which eventually become seeds.

(q) Taxon

A Taxon is any unit used in the science of biological classification, or taxonomy. Taxonomists place organisms, for instance plants, into categories, such as family, genus or species. A species of plant such as our native bluebell Hyacinthoides non-scripta is a taxon but not all taxa (plural) are species e.g hybrids.

(r) Illegal

In this context the common word "illegal" has nothing to do with the laws passed in parliament.

When naming a newly discovered species such as a plant, there are international rules which tell everyone how to name the plant; what is allowed and what isn't allowed. If the rules have not been followed properly then the plant name is said to be illegal. If the name becomes well-known it can be altered so the new name obeys the rules.

If the plant-naming rules have been obeyed but there is a non-botanical reason for changing the name, the change is often refused. An example of this is the mistaken naming of one of our most beautiful orchids: The Lady's Slipper Orchid (Cypripedium calceolus) the flower of which looks like a golden slipper or shoe.

Named by Carl Linnaeus no less, the first (generic) name Cypripedium is a bit of a blunder. The Latin for the Goddess Venus is Cypris (she was from Cyprus according to mythology) and the Greek for a sandal or shoe is pedilon but pedium is the Latin (genitive plural) for feet. So Cypripedium, intended to be a hybrid of original Greek and Latin names, ended up meaning something else. Linnaeus himself suggested that Latin and Greek should never be mixed but he did mistakenly break his own rule and mix them in this name.

Later, some botanical perfectionists (probably taxonomists) suggested that the name be changed to Cypripedilum but naming rules prevented the change as Cypripedium isn't actually a spelling mistake. We all think Linnaeus wanted to call the Lady's-slipper Orchid after Venus's shoe as the flower reminds you of a shoe but ended up naming it after her feet. But that is merely unfortunate not illegal. Appeals to correct the name were refused and the Latin name forever translates as Lady's Foot Orchid not Lady's Slipper Orchid but don't tell any of the Orchid fanatics.

Created by Peter Llewellyn April 2021, updated PJL March 2024, updated after proof reading 25th April 2024